It is recommended that you read ‘An Introduction to the Evolution of Animal Fighting Behaviour‘ before you read this, as there are some concepts explained in the earlier article which are used without explanation in this article.
Introduction
Success in fighting behaviour is frequency dependent i.e. as the population size increases fighting success [...]
Communication is the process of transferring information from one animal to another; there are typically three types of roles involved with communication. These are:
Signaller – Initiates the communication, the signaller must benefit from making the signal
Receiver – Receives the signals sent by the signaller, these signals are often of benefit to the receiver as well
Eavesdropper – Takes advantage of the signals generated by the signaller
Intrasexual selection (in contrast to intersexual selection) is when members of the same sex (within a species) compete with each other in order to gain opportunities to mate with others, e.g. the male against male competition for females. Because intrasexual selection often involves fighting, species or individuals well adapt for intrasexual selection will have developed better armourments (weapons) than their competition.
Intersexual selection (in contrast to intrasexual selection), is often known as female choice and is the process where the female choses the male based on certain ornaments e.g. a peacock’s tail. The ornament is not usually beneficial to the male (e.g. bright colours make it an attractive target for predators) but the female prefers the larger ornaments as it signals the male’s is able to cope with the hindrance.
Introduction
The primary effect of opioids is to temporarily remove pain when used at therapeutic levels; this is done by binding to opioid receptors found primarily in the central nervous system (some receptors are found in the gastrointestinal tract). When larger doses are given, opioids can induce beneficial and non-beneficial pharmacological effects such as sedation, [...]
Introduction
In animals all waste products must be excreted from the body in some manner. The urinary system is involved in the excretion of nitrogenous waste products such as urea, uric acid or ammonia. The excretion of nitrogenous waste from animals is important because if it is allowed to build up, it can [...]
Introduction
The method of digestion which an animal uses depends on its diet i.e. carnivore, herbivore or omnivore. For example not all mammals are carnivores (e.g. dogs and cats), herbivorous mammals include rabbits, chinchillas, guinea pigs etc.
Generally, carnivores consume animal tissue which is similar to their own; therefore all the body needs to do [...]
Introduction
The somatosensory system comprises of ‘senses’ known as sensory modalities, these include; tactition (touch), temperature, proprioception (body position awareness) and nociception (pain). It is possible there are others, and these categories may be broken down further, for example kinaesthesia is the awareness of muscle strain/tension which is a form of nociception/proprioception.
Sensory receptors and [...]
Introduction
Located in the inner ear are several small organs responsible for balance. These organs belong to the vestibular system and give humans and many other mammals a sense of spatial awareness.
The vestibular apparatus lie within the vestibule, located in the inner ear labyrinth (along with the cochlea [...]
Introduction
Cranial nerves arise from the brain directly (unlike spinal nerves which arise from the spinal cord). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves, varying in length – from supplying nearby structures of the head to the Vagus nerve (X) which is the longest nerve in the body.
Cranial nerves may carry:
Sensory information only, [...]
Introduction
When an axon ends, the action potential which it carries can no longer be transmitted by the same medium. Axons end in a structure known as a synapse, the synapse allows the action potential to be propagated by means of chemicals (as opposed to electrically charged ions). An axon which terminates on an individual [...]
Introduction This is part of the ‘Special Senses’ Series:
Vision Hearing Smell Taste The tongue is the organ of taste. Perception of taste is also known as gustation and in a similar manner to smell it depends on chemoreceptors to detect [...]
Introduction This is part of the ‘Special Senses’ Series:
Vision Hearing Smell Taste The sensation of smell is also referred to as olfaction. The sensory cells of olfaction are chemoreceptor neurones with a direct connection to the brain. The organ responsible for smell is [...]
Introduction This is part of the ‘Special Senses’ Series:
Vision Hearing Smell Taste The ear is the organ of hearing (and balance). Specially adapted receptor cells located in the inner ear are able to react to sound waves. The ear can be divided into [...]
Introduction This is part of the ‘Special Senses’ Series:
The eye is the organ of vision. The main cells responsible for beginning the process of converting light (of varying wavelengths) into an interpreted image we can ‘see’ are photoreceptors. These [...]
The key point of regulating food intake is to maintain a constant body weight. Food intake (energy input) must therefore balance against factors resulting in a loss of body weight, energy output. Such factors as basal metabolic rate or physical activity (exercise). Because of the simple relationship between energy input and [...]
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